Retinoic acid in limb-bud outgrowth: review and hypothesis.

Limb outgrowth is arguably the most fundamental aspect of limb development. It begins with the emergence of buds from the embryo's lateral body wall. More rapid growth along each bud's proximodistal axis than along its anteroposterior or dorsoventral axes yields the limb's basic elongated shape. Many processes that generate refinements of this basic limb form are now being explored at the molecular level. Yet, there remain gaps in our understanding of basic limb outgrowth itself. This review examines the pivotal role of the apical ectodermal ridge in promoting and maintaining limb-bud outgrowth. It discusses the interplay between the apical ectodermal ridge and the subridge limb mesenchyme. It examines evidence that the pattern of limb anomalies in the offspring of mothers exposed to exogenous retinoids such as retinoic acid strongly suggests interference with apical ectodermal ridge function. It covers evidence that cellular retinoic acid-binding protein in the cytoplasm of the cells under the apical ectodermal ridge limits the effects of retinoic acid, a potent retinoid and teratogen, on retinoic acid-driven gene transcription. It explains that retinoic acid generally enhances differentiation in a variety of cell types. On the basis of the information presented, it is suggested that the limb ectoderm promotes cellular retinoic acid-binding protein expression in the subridge mesenchyme and thereby limits the access of retinoic acid to its nuclear receptors in these cells. Cellular-retinoic-acid-binding-protein-mediated, local sequestration or inactivation of free retinoic acid is suggested as a prerequisite not only for the continued responsiveness of the distal mesenchyme to growth promotion by the apical ectodermal ridge, but to the maintenance of the apical ectodermal ridge itself by the subridge mesenchyme.