Gut‑kidney axis in chronic kidney disease: Dysbiosis, uremic metabolites and therapeutic opportunities (Review).

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) poses a notable global health burden. Beyond traditional pathways, the gut‑kidney axis has emerged as a potential contributor to disease progression. In the present narrative review, current evidence on the role of intestinal dysbiosis, characterized by reduced microbial diversity, depletion of beneficial short‑chain fatty acid producers and expansion of uremic toxin‑generating bacteria, in the accumulation of nephrotoxic metabolites (such as indoxyl sulfate, p‑cresyl sulfate and trimethylamine N‑oxide) is summarized. These toxins promote oxidative stress, inflammation and fibrosis, accelerating renal decline. By contrast, microbially derived short‑chain fatty acids exert protective effects. Although therapeutic strategies targeting the gut microbiome (including probiotics, prebiotics and adsorbents) and fecal microbiota transplantation (targeting the gut microbiome) exhibit potential in modulating toxin levels, evidence for clinical endpoint benefit remains insufficient. In the present review, mechanistic insights were critically evaluated, clinical intervention studies are systematically summarized in tabulated form and a roadmap for personalized, microbiota‑informed therapeutic strategies is proposed.