Skiers' footprint on wildlife stress: Tracing the impact of winter sports on black grouse with interactive mapping.

Human recreation in mountainous ecosystems, particularly skiing, poses a significant challenge for wildlife conservation, as evidenced by physiological stress responses observed in black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix). Here, we present a reusable workflow that integrates noninvasive fecal corticosterone metabolite (FCM) measurements, mixed-effects modeling, spatial prediction, and an interactive web application to quantify and map stress responses to winter sports. We analyzed 235 fecal samples for corticosterone metabolites as indicators of stress. Using a mixed-effects model, we observed that FCM levels in black grouse increased with higher skier numbers, particularly in proximity to ski slopes. To enhance understanding and management of these impacts, we then used the fitted model to produce 10-m resolution stress maps under alternative scenarios and embedded these in an interactive mapping tool, hosted at http://boydorr.gla.ac.uk/lucanelli/blackgrouse_stress, to visualize the stress impacts on black grouse under different skiing and environmental scenarios. This tool supports scenario-based management and research into wildlife disturbances and could inform future educational efforts to raise awareness among ski resort users about their potential impact on wildlife. The workflow can also be transferred to other species and disturbance contexts. Our study contributes to the broader efforts to manage human-wildlife conflicts in sensitive ecosystems, offering a novel and practical approach to harmonizing recreational activities with wildlife conservation.