ArticleSensors (Basel, Switzerland)2026
Array-Based CTD Thermal Sensing for Low-Flow Downhole Applications with Dual-Mode Compensation.
Article in Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Accurate downhole temperature sensing and low-flow characterization remain challenging in horizontal and highly deviated wells because of nonuniform cross-sectional flow, temperature drift, and probe-to-probe response differences. This study develops an array-based dual-mode constant-temperature-difference (CTD) sensing system for low-flow downhole applications. The system integrates one upstream temperature-sensing probe and six downstream heated sensing probes with pulse width modulation (PWM)-based CTD regulation, particle swarm optimization-genetic algorithm-proportional-integral-derivative (PSO-GA-PID) parameter tuning, probe-specific polynomial calibration, and depth-matched baseline compensation. The resulting framework is intended to improve the heating stability and consistency of the distributed thermal responses. Simulations using representative CTD thermal dynamics, together with repeated stochastic optimization, show that PSO refinement improves the repeatability of PID parameter tuning and reduces transient deviation. Experimental tests further show that PSO-GA-PID achieves a mean overshoot of 4.34% and a mean integral of time-weighted absolute error (ITAE) of 807.08, both lower than those of GA-PID. After polynomial calibration, the absolute temperature errors of all probes remain within ±0.6 °C over 10-60 °C and ±0.3 °C over 60-150 °C. Under single-phase water conditions, dual-mode baseline compensation reduces the maximum duty-cycle difference among the six sensing probes from 6.1-7.6 to 2.6-4.0 percentage points. The compensated heating duty cycle increases monotonically with flow rate and exhibits higher sensitivity over 0-30 m
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