High-Moisture Extrusion of Plant-Based Meat Analogues: Challenges and Opportunities.

Growing concerns about the environmental, ethical, and public health impacts of conventional meat production have driven the development of plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs). Among the plant protein structuring techniques available, high-moisture extrusion (HME) is one of the most scalable structuring technologies for producing fibrous, anisotropic textures that mimic the organization of animal muscle. However, achieving meat-like characteristics remains challenging due to the inherent differences between plant proteins and animal muscle proteins, as well as the complex interactions between formulation and processing conditions that determine final product structure. Therefore, this review provides an assessment of extrusion-based PBMA development by integrating current understanding of protein transformations during extrusion, including critical processing parameters such as moisture content, temperature profile, screw configuration, screw speed, and cooling die design. The key challenges that limit the wider adoption of PBMAs, such as structural, sensory, nutritional, and processing challenges, are critically discussed. Furthermore, emerging opportunities for the development of PBMAs, such as advanced formulation, hybrid processing, or the use of analytical tools such as peptidomics, are highlighted. Overall, this narrative review summarizes the current state of extrusion-based PBMA development and highlights the key scientific and technological advances needed to develop plant-based products that more closely replicate the structural, sensory, and nutritional qualities of animal meat while maintaining economic and environmental sustainability.