Intersectional Barriers to and Facilitators of Educational Inclusion for Persons With Disabilities in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Literature Review.

Background: in low- and middle-income countries, the exclusion of persons with disabilities from education is influenced by a combination of structural, environmental, and psychosocial constraints. These challenges are further compounded by intersecting factors such as gender, socioeconomic status, and geographic location, which deepen existing inequalities. Gaining insight into these overlapping dynamics is essential for advancing inclusive education. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted across Google Scholar, PubMed/MEDLINE, ERIC, and African Journals Online, yielding 132 records. This review was retrospectively registered with PROSPERO (registration number CRD420261360472). After screening titles and abstracts, assessing full text eligibility, and conducting quality appraisal using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT), 23 studies were included in the review. The data were then analyzed and synthesized using a narrative thematic approach. Results: The findings highlight a consistent gap between policy and implementation, alongside insufficient infrastructure and pervasive stigma that hinder inclusive education. Intersectional factors were found to amplify disadvantage, particularly among girls and individuals in rural settings. At the same time, community-based interventions and the use of assistive technologies were identified as important enablers of inclusion. Conclusion: The study demonstrates that educational exclusion arises from interconnected structural and societal influences rather than disability in isolation. Effectively addressing these challenges requires tackling intersectional barriers through systemic reforms, inclusive teaching practices, and active community involvement. Achieving sustainable inclusion will depend on a dual strategy that addresses both individual needs and broader systemic issues.