ReviewFrontiers in immunology2026
Immune checkpoint inhibitors and the inflammatory dysregulation: decoding cutaneous and gastrointestinal immune-related adverse events for the allergist and immunologist.
Review in Frontiers in immunology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
0 citing papers in PubMed.
No citing paper in PubMed yet.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
3 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), its ligand (PD-L1), and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) have revolutionized oncology, yet they unleash a unique spectrum of inflammatory toxicities known as immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Cutaneous and gastrointestinal irAEs represent the most frequent and clinically challenging manifestations encountered by allergists and clinical immunologists. Unlike classical type I-IV hypersensitivity reactions, irAEs arise from disruption of peripheral immune tolerance, leading to T-cell hyperactivation, B-cell dysregulation with IgE and IgG4 skewing, and pro-inflammatory cytokine networks dominated by interleukin (IL)-6, IL-17, and interferon-gamma. IrAEs are best conceptualized as a distinct category of drug-induced autoimmunity, rather than a fifth type of hypersensitivity reaction. This review provides a comprehensive, clinically actionable framework for the practicing allergist. We dissect the divergent pathophysiology of anti-CTLA-4 versus anti-PD-1 toxicities, characterize the full spectrum of cutaneous eruptions and delineate the grading and management of ICI-induced colitis, which mimics inflammatory bowel disease but has distinct immune signatures. We critically evaluate emerging biomarkers (eosinophilia, serum IL-6, and fecal calprotectin) and present an evidence-based algorithm for step-up therapy: from topical corticosteroids and antihistamines for grade 1-2 rash, to systemic corticosteroids for grade 2-3 colitis, and biologic agents (infliximab, vedolizumab, tocilizumab, dupilumab) for corticosteroid-refractory cases. A dedicated section tackles the allergist's most challenging dilemma (rechallenge after severe irAEs) providing evidence-based guidance. We identify critical knowledge gaps: pre-existing atopy as a risk factor, antihistamine prophylaxis utility, and overlapping toxicity management. This review repositions allergists as essential oncology partners, advancing irAE care from crisis response to precision immuno-toxicology.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.