ReviewJournal of robotic surgery2026
From the operating room to the cloud: the evolving continuum from live surgical broadcasting to remote tele-surgery.
Review in Journal of robotic surgery, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Who cites it
0 citing papers in PubMed.
No citing paper in PubMed yet.
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Authors and funding
3 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
In the last four decades, the transmission of a live surgical operation to a remote audience has evolved from closed-circuit educational broadcast into a fully remote, robot-assisted surgery performed across different continents. This review maps that journey systematically, defining a six-rung Digital Surgical Spectrum - from passive live broadcast to artificial-intelligence-augmented autonomous surgery - grounding each stage in published clinical evidence across multiple surgical domains. We demonstrate that each rung of this spectrum is no longer theoretical. Live broadcasts have reached audiences across multiple countries. Tele-proctoring was validated at scale during the COVID-19 pandemic, and tele-mentoring has been shown in systematic review to produce a safety and efficacy profile broadly comparable to on-site supervision. True remote tele-surgery has been accomplished over distances exceeding 8,000 km with latencies well within established procedure specific safety thresholds. We also present a case timeline and an Institutional Readiness Framework specifying the technical, regulatory, and other prerequisites for each rung, organized visually as a Digital Surgical Spectrum. Importantly, nuances such as the performance paradox of observed surgery, consent frameworks, cybersecurity risk, regulatory fragmentation, and the threat of entrenching rather than correcting global surgical inequity are examined. As the field advances, the growth of tele-surgical technologies will depend on international regulatory harmonization and equity-centered deployment, supported by prospective multi-specialty outcome registries.
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