Technology-mediated Chinese learning beyond the classroom: the role of L2 resilience and L2 engagement.

Introduction: Out-of-class autonomous language learning is an important dimension of second language (L2) development, particularly in higher education contexts where learners are expected to regulate their own learning beyond formal instruction. In technology-mediated learning environments, this autonomy increasingly depends on learners' technology literacy (TL), understood not merely as the ability to operate digital tools but as a self-regulated capacity to select resources, evaluate information, solve learning problems, and sustain participation in digital learning contexts. In Chinese as a Second Language (CSL) learning, however, relatively little is known about CSL learners' TL in autonomous out-of-class learning or about the learner-side factors that may support this capacity. Methods: This mixed-methods study examined the current profile of TL among 327 international CSL learners in mainland China and investigated whether L2 resilience and L2 engagement predicted TL. Quantitative data were collected through questionnaire surveys and analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, multiple regression, and robustness checks. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with six participants and analyzed thematically. Results: Learners reported a moderate level of TL. Both L2 resilience and L2 engagement significantly and positively predicted TL, with L2 engagement showing the stronger predictive effect. Interview findings further indicated that learners used technology to support examination preparation, maintain Chinese exposure, access authentic digital communities, and connect Chinese learning with academic, professional, and everyday life needs. Discussion: These findings suggest that TL in out-of-class CSL learning is closely connected with learners' persistence, engagement, and self-regulated use of digital resources. The study offers implications for helping CSL learners select, combine, and sustain technology-mediated Chinese learning practices beyond the classroom.