ArticleBehavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland)2026
Generality and Context-Specificity of Executive Function in College Students with Bullying Victimization Experiences.
Article in Behavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Although previous research has confirmed an association between bullying victimization and executive function (EF) impairments, the long-term trajectory of these deficits remains controversial, specifically whether they persist as permanent scars into adulthood or are subject to a degree of neuroplastic recovery through brain maturation and subsequent learning experiences. Moreover, prior studies have largely focused on relatively stable, cross-task deficits, with limited examination of whether EF performance is dynamically modulated by victimization-related contextual cues. Accordingly, the present study examined the differences in EF performance among individuals with a history of bullying victimization under both general processing conditions and context-induced conditions through two experiments. Experiment 1a and Experiment 2a assessed general inhibitory control (IC) and working memory (WM) using the classic Stroop and N-back paradigms, respectively. Experiment 1b and Experiment 2b introduced victimization-related contextual cues into these paradigms to examine context-dependent alterations in cognitive control. The results showed that, under general conditions, the victimization group exhibited significantly longer reaction times (RTs) than the control group in both the Stroop and N-back tasks, indicating less efficient general cognitive processing. Further analyses revealed distinct patterns under context-specific conditions: in the adapted Stroop paradigm, the victimization group showed relatively faster RTs in victimization-related contexts, suggesting context-dependent differences in interference control; in contrast, in the WM task, RTs were prolonged in victimization-related contexts, suggesting greater contextual interference during WM processing. In conclusion, bullying victimization is associated not only with general differences in EF performance among college students but also with context-dependent alterations in cognitive processing. These findings highlight the context-dependent effects of bullying-related cues on EF and provide behavioral evidence that bullying victimization is associated with alterations in cognitive control processes, with potential implications for developing targeted intervention strategies.
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