Image Transmission over LoRa Networks: Challenges, Innovations, and Practical Solutions.

The Internet of Things has increasingly enabled advancing real-time environmental monitoring through the integration of Low-Power Wide-Area Networks. Among these technologies, LoRa (Long Range) has emerged as a prominent communication technology due to its combination of long-range communication, low energy consumption, and affordability, making it particularly suitable for remote and infrastructure-limited environments. Its adaptability is further enhanced through the use of open-source hardware, renewable energy sources, and intelligent algorithms. Despite LoRa's limitations in bandwidth and data rate, recent innovations enabled increasingly data-intensive applications, including image transmission. This review critically examines recent advances in image transmission over LoRa networks, synthesising approaches across four interconnected strategies: image compression, packetisation and reliability, communication optimisation, and application-specific techniques. The analysis evaluates trade-offs among image size, transmission latency, energy consumption, coverage, and reconstructed image quality. These considerations are particularly relevant for environmental sensing applications, including water quality assessment, air pollution monitoring, wildlife tracking, and underground mining. This review synthesises recent advances in LoRa-based environmental and visual sensing and highlights persistent challenges, including duty-cycle restrictions, limited throughput, and energy constraints, that must be addressed for broader adoption in data-intensive sensing applications. By analysing current strategies and proposing future directions, including adaptive encoding, lightweight encryption, and energy-aware scheduling, the review demonstrates the potential of LoRa to play an increasingly important role in enabling sustainable, scalable, and accessible Internet of Things solutions across diverse environmental settings.