Associations Between Protective Factors and Prosocial Behaviors Among Children and Adolescents with Childhood Maltreatment: A Three-level Meta-Analysis.

Childhood maltreatment has been extensively studied for its negative developmental consequences, yet the role of protective factors in promoting prosocial behaviors among affected children and adolescents has remained unclear. The present study addressed this gap by conducting a three-level meta-analysis to examine the associations between four types of protective factors (psychological capital, emotion regulation ability, parenting quality and family functioning, and social support) and prosocial behaviors in this population. A total of 17 studies with 34 effect sizes were included (n = 43,477). The results showed that most types of protective factors exhibited small-to-moderate positive associations with prosocial behaviors (r = .314 to 0.406, p < .001), whereas emotion regulation ability showed a non-significant and near-zero correlation (r = - .017; z = - 0.204, p = .838). A significant moderating effect emerged for study quality, with higher-quality studies yielding stronger associations. Although the type of protective factor did not serve as a significant overall moderator, emotion regulation ability demonstrated a significantly weaker association with prosocial behaviors compared with psychological capital. These findings point to the potential relevance of psychological capital, family-based resources, and social support for interventions targeting the maltreated, whereas emotion regulation training may be less promising as a standalone strategy. Policy efforts that support parenting programs and community-based social services could also be considered, though these suggestions remain tentative pending further causal evidence.