The interpersonal and intrapsychic functions of the pride expression.

A large body of research suggests that pride is associated with a distinct, cross-culturally recognized and spontaneously displayed nonverbal expression. Given its apparent universality, this expression is likely to have evolved as a functional signal, benefitting both receivers and senders. Here, we focus primarily on the intrapsychic benefits received by those who express pride. We review research suggesting that the expression communicates an individual's deservedness of high status to others, and that it does so implicitly and across diverse cultural contexts. We then discuss the expression's function in the context of dual-strategies theory, which suggests that there are two distinct forms of high rank: prestige, based on earned respect, and dominance, based on threat of force. Studies suggest that the pride expression reliably and cross-culturally communicates prestige, but not dominance. Finally, we discuss functions of the pride expression that go beyond the display's signal value. In sum, the pride nonverbal expression appears to be a highly functional display that likely evolved to facilitate humans' adaptive responding to opportunities for social rank attainment. This article is part of the theme issue 'Mechanisms, development, phylogeny and functions of emotional expressions'.