ArticleSensors (Basel, Switzerland)2026
Experimental Evaluation of Wi-Fi and BLE Smart Particles in a Rotating Drum: Link-Budget-Normalised RSSI Characterisation and IMU Validation of the Wi-Fi Particle.
Article in Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Wireless sensing inside rotating industrial machines is challenging due to signal attenuation, multipath propagation, and continuous sensor motion. Smart particles equipped with wireless communication and inertial sensors provide a promising approach for monitoring such systems. However, the reliability of wireless signal transmission under rotational dynamics remains insufficiently understood, and systematic approaches for sensor selection are lacking. This paper presents a link-budget-normalised experimental characterisation of three commercial smart particles, namely MetaMotionS (BLE), WitMotion BLE, and WitMotion Wi-Fi, in a bare 300 mm diameter by 310 mm deep metallic drum fitted with six triangular lifters, at rest and at 16, 18, and 20 RPM, corresponding to 20.7-25.9% of the critical speed and Froude numbers of 0.043-0.067. Because raw received power conflates transmit power with channel behaviour, the comparison is expressed as excess path loss above free space together with second-order fading statistics. Two particles of the same protocol class differ by 23.9 dB, of which at most 4 dB is attributable to the transmission of power across the documented range of both radios, establishing that device implementation rather than protocol class governs the ranking. Two particles logged simultaneously through a single receiver observe one channel realisation, and the correlation between their signal fluctuations is not significantly different from zero at any speed (r = +0.064, -0.098, -0.083), indicating device-specific rather than environmental fading. Under rotation, the Wi-Fi particle holds an RSSI standard deviation of 1.96 dB against 6.27 and 6.58 dB for the two BLE particles (Welch ANOVA,
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