ArticleFrontiers in nutrition2026
D-galactose enhances Maillard reaction and antioxidant activity of arginine-derived products: experimental and molecular insights.
Article in Frontiers in nutrition, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Background: Arginine-derived Maillard reaction products (MRPs) have shown promising antioxidant activities. However, how structurally distinct hexose reducing sugars, such as D-fructose and D-galactose, affect the formation and functional properties of L-arginine-derived MRPs remains unclear. Methods: Arginine-fructose (Arg-Fru) and arginine-galactose (Arg-Gal) model MRPs were prepared by heating at 100 °C for 0.5, 1, and 2 h. The reaction rate was analyzed by monitoring the reaction process and using a kinetic model, while substrate consumption and apparent melanoidin production were measured. Early non-covalent interactions were further investigated using molecular docking and 200 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Finally, functional differences were evaluated by chemical and intracellular antioxidant activities. Results: Compared with Arg-Fru, Arg-Gal showed a more great decrease in pH and higher A294 and A420 values under the same reaction conditions. Kinetic analysis showed that Arg-Gal had higher reaction rate constants. Meanwhile, Arg-Gal exhibited stronger UV-Vis absorption and fluorescence intensity, greater consumption of free amino groups and reducing sugars, and higher apparent melanoidin formation. Molecular docking results showed that D-galactose formed more hydrogen bonds with L-arginine than D-fructose; MD simulations further showed that the Arg-Gal system formed approximately 20 more hydrogen bonds on average, and the diffusion behavior of D-galactose was closer to that of L-arginine, suggesting stronger non-covalent association. Functionally, Arg-Gal showed stronger DPPH radical scavenging capacity, reducing power, and intracellular antioxidant activity than Arg-Fru. Conclusion: D-galactose may promote the Maillard reaction process by enhancing early non-covalent interactions with L-arginine and being associated with enhanced formation of intermediates and melanoidin-related substances, thereby enhancing the antioxidant activity of MRPs. These findings provide experimental and molecular insights into the role of sugar structure in modulating arginine-derived Maillard reaction systems.
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