Integrated veterinary practices and farm performance of small ruminants.

Small ruminant production contributes directly to SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG 1 (No Poverty). This study examines the impact of veterinary and ethnoveterinary practices on small ruminant farm performance. Using primary data from 400 smallholder farmers and applying a multinomial endogenous switching regression model, the study estimates the effects of integrated veterinary and ethnoveterinary medicinal practices on herd size, mortality rates, and net farm income. The results indicate that joint adoption of ethnoveterinary and conventional veterinary practices yields superior performance outcomes relative to exclusive reliance on either system. Specifically, the results reveal that treating small ruminants with veterinary medicinal practices (VM) in isolation increased herd size by 24 % (5 animals) as compared to 28 % (6 animals) when VM is combined with ethnoveterinary medicinal practices (EVM). Joint adoption of EVM and VM was found to significantly reduce ruminant mortality rate by 9 % per year, and improved net farm income by 72 % relative to sole usage of VM, which reduces mortality rate by 7 % and increases farm net income by 27 %. Counterfactual estimates further reveal that non-adopters would have achieved significantly higher productivity and income levels under joint adoption. The findings underscore the complementarities between indigenous knowledge systems and formal veterinary services. Policy efforts aimed at strengthening small ruminant productivity should therefore promote integrative animal health strategies through extension training, institutional support, and inclusive service delivery models. By demonstrating the performance-enhancing effects of hybrid animal health systems, this study contributes to the literature on sustainable livestock management and inclusive agricultural transformation in sub-Saharan Africa.