ArticleFrontiers in public health2026
After-hours work-related technology use, work-to-family interference, and exhaustion among Korean wage workers: gender patterns in associations and covariate-standardized levels.
Article in Frontiers in public health, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Introduction: After-hours work-related technology use may erode boundaries between work and private life. We examined whether after-hours technology use was associated with exhaustion through work-to-family interference (WIF), whether the modeled associations differed by gender, and whether men and women had different covariate-standardized outcome levels. Methods: Pooled cross-sectional data were obtained from 56,640 wage workers in the 6th (2020-2021) and 7th (2023) Korean Working Conditions Survey. Primary analyses used wave-specific standardized survey weights, probability-weighted linear regression with HC3 robust standard errors, and 5,000 multiplier-bootstrap replications. Results: After-hours technology use was associated with higher WIF (B = 0.064, 95% CI 0.053-0.074; standardized beta = 0.10) and exhaustion in the total-association model (B = 0.042, 95% CI 0.031-0.052; beta = 0.07). WIF was associated with exhaustion (B = 0.329, 95% CI 0.314-0.344; beta = 0.34), and the remaining direct association was small (B = 0.021; beta = 0.03). The technology-by-gender interactions in the WIF and total-association models and the gender difference in the conditional indirect association met the stated post hoc equivalence criteria; the other path interactions were not statistically significant. Indirect associations were 0.021 (95% CI 0.017-0.025) for men and 0.018 (95% CI 0.014-0.021) for women; the difference was -0.003 (95% CI -0.008 to 0.002). After standardization to a common distribution of measured paid-work characteristics, women had higher exhaustion than men (difference = 0.087, 95% CI 0.066-0.109). Exploratory categorical analyses suggested a localized, non-monotonic gender difference at several-times-per-month use; this pattern was observed in both waves without detectable wave heterogeneity. Discussion: The associations were small in absolute magnitude, and the cross-sectional design precludes causal interpretation.
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