Potential of different area-based governance mechanisms for achieving Global Biodiversity Framework goals.

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) includes a target to protect 30% of land by 2030, identifying other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) as complementary to Protected Areas (PAs). However, their contribution to conservation outcomes remains uncertain. Here we show the level of human pressure across the global OECM network and assess the impact of different governance mechanisms on deforestation and associated carbon emissions in the Peruvian Amazon from 2005 to 2021. We evaluate Indigenous Lands (ILs), Non-Timber Forest Product Concessions (NTCs), Logging Concessions (LCs), Mining Concessions (MCs), and PAs using statistical matching. Globally, OECMs show higher human pressure than strictly protected PAs, but similar levels to less strictly protected PAs. In the Peruvian Amazon, PAs are most effective at reducing deforestation (49-53% avoided), followed by NTCs and ILs (33% and 20%, respectively). In contrast, LCs and MCs are associated with increased deforestation (13% and 24%). These findings highlight the complementary role of OECMs and the effectiveness of different governance mechanisms in reducing deforestation and carbon emissions, informing efforts to achieve global biodiversity targets.