Mitigating antimicrobial resistance in the animal industry: reduction strategies and alternatives to antibiotics.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has become a worldwide issue of human and animal health, food security, and environmental sustainability due to its seriousness and the challenge of resolving it. Widespread utilization of antibiotics in the animal industry for metaphylactic, therapeutic, production, and prophylactic purposes has significantly contributed to the spread and emergence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. Food- producing animals are also deemed as good reservoirs of "antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) and antimicrobial- resistant bacteria (ARB)" that may contaminate humans through the food chain, environmental pathway, and direct contact. Moreover, the discharge of antibiotic residues into the soil and water systems enhances selective pressure among microbial communities, making AMR a nature of One Health. This review summarizes the major strategies to reduce antibiotics use in the animal industry, which include: better husbandry and biosecurity measures, vaccination, wise use of antimicrobials, manure and environmental management. Special attention is given to non-antibiotic options like probiotics, prebiotics, phytogenic compounds, organic acids, immunomodulators, and other feed-based or biological interventions that are emphasized to maintain animal health and productivity while reducing antibiotic use. Through a combination of these strategies in a One Health paradigm, this review outlines feasible and viable solutions to help curb the problem of AMR in the animal sector. Findings highlight the importance of concerted action by producers, veterinarians, policymakers, and researchers to decrease the reliance on antibiotics and protect human health and animal production systems.