Copper-Based Nanopesticides at the Benthic Interface: Transformation, Speciation, Invertebrate Exposure, and Food-Web Risks.

Copper-based nanopesticides are increasingly explored as nano-enabled alternatives to conventional copper pesticides because they may improve deposition, antimicrobial efficacy, and material-use efficiency. Their environmental risk, however, cannot be inferred from total copper concentration or from the toxicity of pristine particles alone. After agricultural application, copper-based nanoforms may be transported to soils, drainage waters, wetlands, and sediments, where aggregation, dissolution, aging, sulfidation, organic complexation, and biological processing reshape their speciation and bioavailability. This review critically examines copper-based nanopesticides at the benthic interface, with emphasis on environmental transformation, synchrotron-resolved speciation, lower-trophic invertebrate exposure, trophic transfer, and food-web risk. We highlight that sediment-associated organisms are not only toxicity endpoints but also biological processors and vectors of transformed copper species. Evidence from stable-isotope tracing, dietary exposure studies, mesocosms, and micro-food-web experiments shows that copper-based nanoforms can enter aquatic, benthic, and terrestrial food chains. However, most studies demonstrate transfer or accumulation rather than consistent biomagnification across trophic levels. We further argue that future risk assessment should move beyond single-material and single-endpoint testing toward transformation-aware, route-specific, and food-web-relevant frameworks. Integrating total copper analysis with particle-specific measurements, synchrotron-based speciation where analytically feasible, realistic lower-trophic exposure models, and ecosystem-level endpoints will be essential for evaluating the long-term risks of copper-based nanopesticides.