ArticleFrontiers in immunology2026
Differential functional immune recall across homologous and heterologous COVID-19 vaccination regimens.
Article in Frontiers in immunology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
What it found
Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.
The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
The trial behind it
Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.
Who cites it
0 citing papers in PubMed.
No citing paper in PubMed yet.
Corrections and comments
PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.
Authors and funding
8 authors.
Funding
No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.
Abstract
Introduction: Understanding how different COVID-19 vaccine combinations shape long-term immunity is essential for improving durability and guiding booster strategies. Despite extensive characterization of neutralizing antibodies, long-term memory B and T cell responses after homologous and heterologous vaccination regimens remain poorly understood. Methods: In this study, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from 50 individuals were analyzed 12 months after completion of a homologous two-dose primary COVID-19 vaccination series and had received a single booster dose (12-month follow-up). Participants initially received BNT162b2, ChAdOx1 nCoV-19, or CoronaVac as the primary vaccination series, followed by either a homologous booster or a heterologous BNT162b2 booster (ChAdOx1 nCoV-19/BNT162b2 and CoronaVac/BNT162b2). Unvaccinated individuals served as controls. B cell phenotypes were assessed using flow cytometry, while B and T cell recall responses were determined using ELISpot. IgG levels and cytokine/chemokine/growth factor profiles were evaluated using ELISA and Bio-Plex multiplex before and after Results: The homologous BNT162b2 vaccination regimen exhibited significantly higher frequencies of memory B cells recognizing the ancestral (Wuhan strain-derived) SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein compared to the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19, CoronaVac, and unvaccinated controls. The CoronaVac/BNT162b2 vaccination regimen demonstrated significantly elevated RBD-specific IgG+ memory B cells and higher stimulated IgG levels, together with the highest IFN-γ-producing T cell responses. Homologous CoronaVac and CoronaVac/BNT162b2 vaccination regimens showed broader cytokine activation, including IL-6, IL-9, IL-15, TNF-α, and other cytokines. IL-6 levels were positively associated with memory B cell frequencies, suggesting a potential association with memory B cell differentiation and maintenance. Discussion: Different vaccination regimens were associated with distinct long-term cellular immune profiles under real-world conditions, with both homologous BNT162b2 and heterologous CoronaVac/BNT162b2 vaccination regimens maintaining robust memory B cell signatures and functional recall responses. The results highlight how priming combinations shape the durability and quality of immune memory, supporting the potential utility of mixed-platform booster strategies for sustaining long-term immunity.
Indexed as
Identifiers
What OpenQuestion holds
Registered trials
Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.