Murine models of pulmonary fibrosis: mechanisms, limitations and translational insights.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive, irreversible interstitial lung disease characterised by excessive collagen deposition, aberrant tissue remodelling, and impaired gas exchange, ultimately leading to respiratory failure and death. IPF carries a poor prognosis, with limited therapeutic options; currently approved treatments slow disease progression but do not reverse established fibrosis, and lung transplantation remains the only definitive therapy. Moreover, the prevalence and incidence of IPF continue to rise worldwide. These challenges underscore the urgent need to better understand the pathological mechanisms driving IPF, enabling the development of more effective therapeutic strategies. Robust and appropriate animal models are essential for investigating disease pathogenesis and therapeutic response. Although multiple murine models of pulmonary fibrosis are widely used, no single model fully recapitulates the clinical, pathological and temporal features of human IPF. In this review, we systematically summarise commonly used and new murine models of pulmonary fibrosis, emphasising induction methods, technical requirements, the time course of fibrosis development and persistence of fibrosis. Additionally, we highlight the advantages and limitations of each model, discuss how they inform mechanistic and translational studies, and provide practical guidance for selecting appropriate experimental systems based on specific scientific questions, with the goal of improving rigor and relevance in preclinical pulmonary fibrosis research.