Some attributes of pasture-based systems as they relate to dairy cow welfare.

Like all dairy cattle, pasture-based cows face challenges to their welfare, but there are also unique challenges because of the physical environment, which involves exposure to the vagaries of climate and an associated variability in feed supply and composition. Cows balance energy intake with energy expenditure, producing more milk when more pasture is available or when supplementary feed is provided, and less milk when feed is limited. The physiological balancing of milk production with nutrient supply may mean that dairy cows experience short-term fluctuations of hunger and satiety. Though generally having greater freedom for the expression of natural behaviors and often experiencing better health, exposure to the weather brings its challenges. Welfare may be compromised by excessive heat in summer and cold and wet conditions in winter. The provision of shade to protect cows from solar radiation and shelter to protect them from wind and rain, as well as access to clean, dry, and soft lying surfaces, can sometimes be a challenge, especially in large herds. Although the desire to provide livestock with shelter is acknowledged by producers, it is subject to resource availability and affordability and adequate information on relevant technologies and initiatives. Other technologies specific to pasture-based systems include virtual fencing and herding, where grazing and guiding of cows can be controlled by audio or vibration cues which, if ignored, are followed by an aversive electric shock. Safety mechanisms are required to ensure the animal can predict and control its circumstances and respond accordingly. Although they may improve labor efficiency or potentially provide more time for meaningful tasks and interactions with animals, such technologies may also alter how animals and humans interact, challenging traditional ideals of the human-animal relationship. In conclusion, alongside more traditional perspectives of what animals are experiencing, animal welfare critiques also need to acknowledge the dynamic and complex factors determined by human needs and expectations of animals and their husbandry.