Competition and training load of high-level competitive non-motorised surface water sports athletes: a scoping review of athlete monitoring methodology.

Introduction: Monitoring athletes during training and competition is necessary to gather information on athletes' fitness and fatigue to prescribe training loads more precisely. The goal of this process is to improve performance and reduce injury risk. This scoping review aimed to examine and map existing research on monitoring methods for high-level athletes in non-motorised surface water sports, thereby identifying the most commonly used method(s) in these competitive sports and guiding future research. Methods: The Joanna Briggs Institute's scoping review framework served as the guide to provide clarity and rigour in the review. Studies included in this review were published in English in peer-reviewed journals and were identified through a systematic search of four databases: Academic Search Premier, Google Scholar, SPORTDiscus and SpringerLink. The final search of these databases was conducted in August 2025. Results: Twenty-two papers were deemed relevant for inclusion in the final review. Methodologically, the literature converged on heart rate-based internal load metrics (71%, 15/21) and GPS-derived external load metrics (47%, 8/19), however these are imported from land- and ergometer-based environments and are not yet validated against the environmental load that defines non-motorised surface water sports. Discussion: Practically, until environment-adjusted metrics exist, all metrics should be interpreted within environmental contexts. Furthermore, the review highlights the need to increase the use of athlete monitoring methods, particularly for youth and females, and in sports such as sailing and canoeing. Future research should aim to develop ecologically valid monitoring methods in a range of non-motorised surface water sports.