Monitoring and risk assessment of airborne graphene oxide released during a pilot study of 3D printing with polylactic acid filaments.

Fused Deposition Modeling technique is a widely used 3D printing technique that often employs polylactic acid filaments (PLA), which can be enhanced with nanomaterials such as Graphene Oxide (GO). During thermal processing, these materials may release airborne particles, raising occupational and environmental exposure concerns. This study evaluates potential exposure to aerosolized GO from PLA filaments using a tiered risk assessment approach based on the European standard EN 17058:2018 and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidance. A monitoring strategy combined near-field and far-field particle counters with Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Raman Spectroscopy, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were assessed to compare with Spanish and Finish 2022 threshold occupational exposure limits. Nanoparticles and their agglomerates were detected at low number concentrations on average, with traces of Graphene Oxide in respirable fractions. These findings warranted further validation using statistical models such as ARIMA. Although concentrations were below proposed limits. The presence of GO in respirable aerosol indicates that GO nanoestructured within PLA was released into the workplace air. This finding underscores the need for tailored monitoring and control measures in occupational environments. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40201-026-00998-w.