ArticleFrontiers in physiology2026
Multimodal indicators of non-functional overreaching in NCAA Division I American football athletes: evidence for role-specific physiological adaptation.
Article in Frontiers in physiology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Introduction: The purpose of this study was to characterize longitudinal patterns associated with non-functional overreaching (NFOR) in NCAA Division I American football athletes across a competitive season using salivary biomarkers, neuromuscular performance measures, and recovery metrics, with exploratory analyses by team role. Methods: Thirty-nine male athletes (age 20.4 ± 1.75 years) were monitored across a 15-week competitive season. Saliva samples collected pre-, mid-, and post-season assessed cortisol, testosterone, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Neuromuscular performance was evaluated using countermovement jump metrics (jump height, normalized peak power and force, reactive strength index-modified [RSImod]) and PlayerLoad, while recovery was tracked via twice-weekly self-reports of sleep quality and muscle soreness. Associations among biomarkers, recovery, and performance were examined by starting status and position group; statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Results: Distinct role-dependent patterns emerged. Among starters, higher testosterone-to-cortisol ratios were associated with lower soreness and better sleep quality, while higher IL-6/cortisol ratios were associated with higher RSImod values. Non-starters showed patterns consistent with greater physiological strain, with higher IL-6/cortisol ratios associated with poorer recovery despite lower external loads. Mid-season declines in countermovement jump performance coincided with biomarker changes suggestive of accumulated fatigue. Discussion: Overall, both starters and non-starters exhibited patterns consistent with NFOR, though physiological signatures differed by role. Salivary biomarker ratios, particularly IL-6/cortisol, alongside neuromuscular measures such as RSImod may provide useful, non-invasive indicators of fatigue-related stress and support role-specific recovery strategies in applied sport settings.
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