Beyond the silos: A global evidence synthesis of biodiversity, water, food, health and climate nexus interactions.

Healthy, resilient ecosystems depend on biodiversity to provide ecosystem services that are essential for human well-being. However, unsustainable human activities have driven biodiversity loss, ecosystem degradation, and climate change, generating cascading impacts on water, food, and health systems. As part of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Nexus Assessment, we reviewed 1,962 articles and identified 84 that explicitly addressed biodiversity and at least three other nexus elements. Across these studies, we documented 477 interactions, including 188 positive synergies, 148 negative synergies, and 141 trade-offs. Human health was the least represented nexus element and was largely treated as an outcome rather than a driver. Biodiversity emerged as foundational to positive synergies across the nexus, while climate change drove mutual losses and food production generated multiple trade-offs. These findings highlight the need for integrated policies that simultaneously conserve biodiversity, transform food systems, and address climate change to generate co-benefits for water, food, and human health.