Associations of perceived natural and social environments with subjective well-being among Chinese older adults: a cross-sectional study of gender differences.

Background: Environmental psychology research is characterized by a divergence between two core theoretical orientations. The stress reduction theory posits a direct correlation between perceived natural environment and individual well-being; the social ecology theory, in contrast, maintains that the correlation between perceived social environment and subjective well-being is contingent upon social behavior. However, few studies have systematically compared the differentiated association patterns of these two environment types with older adults' subjective well-being within a unified analytical framework, and integrated examination of gender heterogeneity in such associations remains inadequate. This gap delays theoretical integration and provides limited evidence for gender-sensitive age-friendly community design. Methods: This study used data from the 2021 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), yielding 2,929 valid participants aged 60 and above. All core environmental variables were assessed through subjective perception rather than objective exposure. Perceived natural environment focused on negative perceived exposures; perceived social environment covered comprehensive evaluations of neighborhood safety, living convenience, neighborhood mutual assistance, and public services. A structural equation model linking perceived natural environment, perceived social environment, neighborhood interaction, and subjective well-being of older adults was specified. Associations were estimated using the WLSMV estimator. To ensure the validity of gender comparisons, measurement invariance tests were conducted. Common method bias was assessed using the latent method factor approach. Gender heterogeneity was examined through multi-group structural equation modeling. In addition, multiple imputation was performed to handle missing data and to test the robustness of the results against potential bias due to incomplete responses. Results: In the full sample, the total association of perceived social environment with subjective well-being ( Conclusion: This study clarifies the differentiated theoretical patterns of association between perceived natural environment and perceived social environment with older adults' subjective well-being, confirms the gender-specific divergence in these associations, and provides localized empirical evidence for developing a gender-sensitive, precision-oriented environmental support system for age-friendly communities in China.