Nano-Carbon Biointerfaces in Biosensors for Cancer: A Scoping Review Mapping the Transition from Proof-of-Concept to Translational Applicability (2024-2026).

Nano-carbon biointerfaces offer versatile platforms for cancer biomarker detection, but their progression from analytical proof-of-concept to clinically usable diagnostic evidence remains uneven. This scoping review maps 191 primary studies published from 2024 to 2026, covering nano-carbon families, surface chemistries, transduction architectures, biological matrices, and translational endpoints in cancer biosensing. The evidence space spans four nano-carbon dimensional classes: zero-dimensional carbon dots and quantum dots, one-dimensional carbon nanotubes, two-dimensional graphene-derived materials, and three-dimensional hybrid composites. Across these platforms, analytical sensitivity did not scale monotonically with nano-carbon dimensionality; instead, performance was shaped by the interaction between material architecture, biointerface chemistry, recognition strategy, transduction modality, and matrix context. A Translational Readiness Matrix showed that approximately 67% of studies remained at Low Evidence Level, whereas only approximately 10% reached Strong Evidence Level. Five recurring bottlenecks constrained translation: incomplete reproducibility reporting, limited Real-matrix Validation, scarce comparator-based clinical evidence, insufficient manufacturing-scale data, and weak regulatory or deployment planning. To address these gaps, this review proposes a nine-item minimum reporting checklist and a four-stage validation roadmap to support more reproducible, comparable, and clinically oriented nano-carbon biosensor development.