Comparative effects of Baduanjin and square dance on working memory, executive function performance, mood, and fatigue in older women: a randomized controlled trial.

Purpose: This exploratory randomized controlled trial compared the effects of Baduanjin and square dance on working memory, executive function performance, mood, fatigue, and selected physiological outcomes in older women. Methods: In this 12-week randomized controlled trial, 90 older women were allocated to Baduanjin, square dance, or control groups (n = 30 each). The exercise groups completed supervised 60-min sessions three times weekly. Cognitive outcomes were assessed with the N-back, Stroop, Flanker, and Digit Span tasks. Backward Digit Span and Stroop incongruent accuracy were retrospectively designated as the primary cognitive outcomes on theoretical grounds, whereas the remaining cognitive, psychological, and physiological outcomes were treated as secondary or exploratory outcomes. Seventy-nine participants completed the intervention and were included in the per-protocol analysis. Time × group interactions were tested using mixed-design ANOVA, with Bonferroni-adjusted simple-effect comparisons for interaction-significant outcomes. Results: Significant time × group interactions were observed for Stroop incongruent accuracy ( Conclusion: In this exploratory trial, Baduanjin and square dance were associated with favorable changes in selected cognitive and affective outcomes rather than across the full outcome battery. The observed cognitive pattern was descriptively broader in the Baduanjin group, but direct superiority over square dance was not established. These preliminary findings should be interpreted cautiously and require confirmation in larger, prospectively registered trials with prespecified primary outcomes.