Post-Peak Cooling Rate Is Strongly Associated with Layer-Resolved Porosity Evolution in Hybrid WAAM-FSP Al 4043 Multi-Layer Walls.

Ahmed Nabil Elalem, Mahmood Razzaghi, Xin Wu

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Article in Materials (Basel, Switzerland), 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.

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5 · Who and what money

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3 authors.

Ahmed Nabil ElalemDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.ORCID 0009-0000-8058-3370

Mahmood RazzaghiDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada.ORCID 0000-0002-3466-4206

Xin WuDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.ORCID 0000-0003-2848-5604

Funding

No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.

6 · The paper itself

Abstract

In hybrid wire arc additive manufacturing with interlayer friction stir processing (UAMFSP), refined microstructures are produced in aluminum alloy builds; however, the thermal parameters governing layer-resolved defect evolution remain poorly understood. In this study, a correlative mechanistic framework is presented in which post-peak cooling rate is identified as a plausible controlling factor for porosity evolution in UAMFSP Al 4043 three-layer walls. A multi-scale characterization is performed by employing infrared thermography, quantitative optical grain morphology analysis (N = 10,346 grains, Layers 1-3), scanning electron microscopy from 250× to 35,000×, and image-based porosity quantification from calibrated SEM fields. This primary quantitative comparison is established between L1 and L3 only; Layer 2 is excluded from the 250× quantitative analysis owing to its thermally distinct cooling regime and is treated separately. A counterintuitive layer-dependent porosity gradient is reported, wherein the upper layer (L3) exhibited 80% higher porosity (2.90 ± 1.18%) and 107% higher pore density (4283 ± 900 pores/mm

Indexed as

aluminum 4043circularityfriction stir processinggrain morphologyinfrared thermographyporositySEMthermal–defect couplingUAMFSPwire arc additive manufacturing

Identifiers

PMID42452000

DOI10.3390/ma19132922

PMCPMC13363642

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