Mutations of Kinases and GTPases in Cancers.

Cancer is a genetic disease driven by the accumulation of mutations that disrupt normal cellular growth. Among the most frequently mutated families are protein kinases, inositol polyphosphate kinases, and GTPases, which together function as central molecular switches controlling proliferation, survival, and metabolism. In cancer, activating mutations in protein kinases, such as EGFR and BRAF, lead to uncontrolled downstream signaling by locking these enzymes in a constitutively active state. Similarly, mutations affecting inositol kinases, notably PI3KCA, hyperactivate the PI3K/AKT pathway, promoting relentless cell survival and resistance to apoptosis. GTPases, particularly Ras family members (KRAS, NRAS, HRAS), are classical oncogenes where single amino acid substitutions impair their intrinsic GTP hydrolysis activity, trapping them in a persistently GTP-bound "on" state. This unleashes continuous mitogenic signaling independently of external growth factors. Collectively, these mutations are not random but converge on a limited set of core pathways, making them key drivers of tumor initiation and progression. Understanding the specific molecular consequences of kinase and GTPase mutations has directly informed the development of targeted therapies, including small molecule inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies, now used in routine clinical practice.