Evidence map›Paper›PMID 42448595›Full record

Observational studyArchives of disease in childhood2026

Developmental outcomes in 4-year-old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born In COVID Year - Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study.

Nicola Botting, Chelo Del Rosario, Jane Flynn, Stian Reimers, Catherine Davies, Nayeli Gonzalez-Gomez, Alexandra Hendry, Elisabeth Hill, Michelle McGillion, Becky Moss and 2 more

Abstract readObservational Study
PubMed Full text at PMC Publisher
In one paragraph

Observational study in Archives of disease in childhood, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 1 paper.

0numbers the graph read from it
0cells of the map it votes in
1citing papers in PubMed
–field-weighted citation impact
1 · What the graph read from it

What it found

Each row is one number read from the abstract, on the scale the paper reported it, with its interval. Left of the dashed line favours the treatment, right favours the comparator. Under each row is the sentence it came from. New to these charts? A ten-minute tutorial.

The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.

2 · The registry

The trial behind it

Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.

Neither the registry nor the abstract names a trial number. If this is a trial report, that itself is worth knowing.

3 · Its place in the literature

Who cites it

1 citing paper in PubMed.

  1. Observational
4 · The record

Corrections and comments

PubMed lists nothing against this paper. Absence here is not a guarantee, only a check that was made.

5 · Who and what money

Authors and funding

12 authors.

Nicola BottingSchool of Health and Medical Sciences, City St George's University of London, London, England, UK Nicola.Botting.1@citystgeorges.ac.uk.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1082-9501
Chelo Del RosarioSchool of Health and Medical Sciences, City St George's University of London, London, England, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9354-7106
Jane FlynnSchool of Health and Medical Sciences, City St George's University of London, London, England, UK.
Stian ReimersSchool of Health and Medical Sciences, City St George's University of London, London, England, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9497-0942
Catherine DaviesSchool of Languages, Cultures and Societies, University of Leeds, Leeds, England, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9347-7905
Nayeli Gonzalez-GomezSchool of Psychology, Social Work and Public Health, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, England, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2012-8290
Alexandra HendryDepartment of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, England, UK.
Elisabeth HillSchool of Health and Medical Sciences, City St George's University of London, London, England, UK.
Michelle McGillionDepartment of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, England, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0541-7951
Becky MossSchool of Health and Medical Sciences, City St George's University of London, London, England, UK.
Laura ShapiroSchool of Psychology, Aston University, Birmingham, England, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3276-457X
Lucy A HenrySchool of Health and Medical Sciences, City St George's University of London, London, England, UK.ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5422-4358

Funding

No grant is acknowledged in the PubMed record.

6 · The paper itself

Abstract

BACKGROUND/

objectiveChildren born during England's COVID-19 lockdowns experienced markedly limited social exposure during a crucial developmental window. Given the importance of early interactions in shaping language, executive function and motor skills, this observational cross-sectional study examined developmental outcomes at age 4.

methods205 children born in lockdown were assessed using standardised measures with published prepandemic norms: expressive vocabulary, expressive language and receptive language (Expressive Vocabulary, Word Structure and Sentence Structure subtests of the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Preschool-second UK edition); receptive vocabulary (British Picture Vocabulary Scale, third edition); executive function (Global Executive Composite (GEC) and Emergent Metacognition Index (EMI) subscales of the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool); motor skills (Motor Skills subscale from the Vineland Adaptive Behaviour Scales) and non-verbal reasoning (Matrices subtest from the British Ability Scales-3). Analyses (n=189-205) compared scores against prepandemic normative expectations and a within-sample benchmark of non-verbal reasoning to assess strengths and weaknesses against general cognitive development.

resultsCompared with normative expectations, Sentence Structure (d=0.59), Expressive Vocabulary (d=0.24), receptive vocabulary (d=0.47) and Matrices (d=0.42) were significantly higher than expected for age. Caregiver-reported executive function was notably lower (GEC, d=-0.46; EMI, d=-0.36), while Word Structure (d=0.01) and Motor Skills (d=0.09) showed no differences. Benchmarked against non-verbal reasoning, Word Structure (d=-0.35), Expressive Vocabulary (d=-0.22), executive function (GEC, d=-0.72; EMI, d=-0.63) and Motor Skills (d=-0.33) were lower than cognitive potential. Sentence Structure (d=0.08) and receptive vocabulary (d=-0.01) were consistent with non-verbal reasoning.

conclusionsCaregiver-reported executive function was the most noteworthy area of concern for children born in lockdown. Expressive language and motor skills were lower than a benchmark of non-verbal reasoning, suggesting some impacts in relation to cognitive potential. This may lead to educational vulnerabilities and additional support needs in classrooms. Overall, these findings offer valuable early insight into postpandemic developmental impacts and underscore the urgent need for responsive educational policy and targeted support for those now in schooling.

Indexed as

Child DevelopmentCOVID-19Child, PreschoolCross-Sectional StudiesEnglandExecutive FunctionFemaleHumansLanguage DevelopmentMaleMotor SkillsSARS-CoV-2Child DevelopmentCovid-19Psychology

Identifiers

PMID42448595
PMCPMC13638306

What OpenQuestion holds

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Registered trials

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Read under generation 80e0d062 · epoch 390. Bibliography from PubMed, PubMed Central and OpenAlex; grants from NIH RePORTER; trial links from ClinicalTrials.gov; estimates, votes and beliefs from the OpenQuestion graph.