A time-lagged psychological model of linguistic uncertainty, cognitive flexibility, and academic well-being among English major students.

Linguistic uncertainty is an inherent feature of advanced English learning, particularly in academic contexts that require interpretation, critical analysis, and open-ended discourse. Although prior research has linked language-related uncertainty to negative academic experiences, less is known about the psychological mechanisms through which such uncertainty may be associated with students' academic well-being over time. This study examined a three-wave time-lagged mediation model among English major students enrolled in undergraduate, master's, and doctoral programs at multiple public universities across four regions of China. Data were collected within a single academic semester (N = 2,554 matched participants). Linguistic uncertainty was assessed at Time 1, tolerance of ambiguity and cognitive flexibility at Time 2, and academic well-being at Time 3. Structural equation modeling was used to test a parallel mediation model, controlling for age and gender. Indirect effects were evaluated using bias-corrected bootstrapping, and sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess robustness. Linguistic uncertainty at Time 1 showed a significant prospective association with academic well-being at Time 3. It was also negatively associated with tolerance of ambiguity and cognitive flexibility at Time 2, both of which were positively associated with later academic well-being. Indirect effects through tolerance of ambiguity (β = -0.084) and cognitive flexibility (β = -0.095) were significant, indicating partial mediation, with the pathway through cognitive flexibility being slightly stronger in magnitude. Sensitivity analyses supported the robustness of the findings to alternative model specifications, potential unmeasured confounding, and sample attrition. The findings suggest that linguistic uncertainty is linked to academic well-being over time, partly through its associations with students' tolerance of ambiguity and cognitive flexibility. By incorporating temporal separation among constructs, this study extends prior cross-sectional research and underscores the relevance of adaptive psychological resources in linguistically demanding academic environments. The results should be interpreted as time-ordered associations rather than causal effects.