ArticleFrontiers in public health2026
Emerging shadow health systems: regulating health-focused generative AI chatbots from a European perspective.
Article in Frontiers in public health, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Cited by 2 papers.
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Who cites it
2 citing papers in PubMed.
- Artificial intelligence in the EU Safe Hearts Plan: prediction alone is not enough.The Lancet regional health. Europe · 2026Review
- High-risk without safeguards? The EU AI Act and the push for deregulation of medical AI.BMJ digital health & AI · 2026Review
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Authors and funding
2 authors.
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Abstract
ChatGPT Health and other health-focused generative AI chatbots increasingly function as alternative first points of contact that may mediate-and in some cases substitute-engagement with regulated healthcare systems. At scale, these systems can shape care-seeking behavior, system capacity, trust in clinical expertise, and health equity. We describe this development as the emergence of shadow health systems: privately governed infrastructures that perform health-system functions without being subject to healthcare-specific safeguards. EU law currently regulates such tools based on declared medical purpose rather than their real-world effects, creating gaps in legal protection. This Policy Brief examines the public health implications and regulatory positioning of health-focused generative AI chatbots in Europe and proposes targeted reforms to address emerging governance gaps.
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