Comparing the predictive roles of intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load on learning performance: the mediating effect of IVR self-efficacy in warehouse training.

Introduction: IVR-Warehouse is an immersive virtual reality (IVR) educational game designed to train senior high technical students in warehouse safety, addressing the high incidence of occupational accidents in Taiwan's warehouse environments. The system enables learners to practice hazard identification and safety responses in a realistic, risk-free environment, thereby overcoming the logistical and safety limitations of real-world training. This study examined the relationship between task-specific IVR self-efficacy, extraneous cognitive load (ECL), VR operational cognitive load (OCL), and learning outcome. Methods: Structural equation modeling was applied to data collected from 167 participants. The results showed that task-specific IVR self-efficacy was negatively associated with both ECL and OCL, and that both forms of cognitive burden were negatively associated with learning outcome. Results: Notably, OCL showed a stronger predictive effect than ECL, suggesting that operational demands, such as interface access, controller use, attention maintenance, and action sequencing, posed a greater challenge for learners than general system- or environment-related distractions. These findings highlight the importance of reducing operational burden and supporting learners' task-specific confidence to maximize the effectiveness of IVR-based warehouse safety training. Conclusion: These findings underscore the importance of managing content difficulty to maximize the effectiveness of IVR-based safety training.