Temporal-oscillatory entrainment: a multi-timescale framework for rhythmic coordination from neural to social frequencies.

Background: The brain coordinates behavior across timescales spanning milliseconds to days through cross-frequency coupling (CFC)-the mechanism by which slow oscillations modulate the amplitude and timing of faster oscillations, creating a hierarchical temporal architecture. Existing frameworks have typically addressed oscillations within narrow frequency ranges, leaving cross-timescale coordination mechanisms underspecified. Approach: I propose a unified framework termed Temporal-Oscillatory Entrainment (TOE), which organizes entrainment phenomena (using the term in its chronobiological sense) across nine frequency ranges into three functional categories: neural (high gamma through delta), biological (behavioral through circadian), and social (weeks and longer). The framework identifies the auditory-motor system as a privileged pathway, given that CFC occurs in the auditory brainstem and rate-restricted coupling at approximately 4-5 Hz reflects an intrinsic auditory-motor rhythm. Evidence: Musical training studies demonstrate that rhythmic experience induces neuroplastic changes spanning subcortical to cortical levels, with transfer effects documented across multiple frequency bands-from millisecond-level discrimination to phrase-level processing. Beyond neural timescales, respiratory rhythms provide a well-characterized example of behavioral-frequency oscillations coupling to neural activity, while social rhythm therapy research demonstrates that stabilizing daily behavioral patterns affects circadian function and mood regulation. Musical ensemble coordination instantiates the same hierarchical nesting and phase-based coupling that characterizes neural CFC. Implications: The TOE framework generates testable predictions about bidirectional transfer effects between timescales, individual differences in entrainment capacity, and the distinct contributions of solo versus ensemble musical experience, with implications for understanding cognitive development, clinical intervention, and the neurobiological foundations of temporal coordination.