3D-Printing in Neurosurgical Training: Hands-On Practice, Patient-Specific Planning and Simulation.

Training in neurosurgery is increasingly challenged by the complexity of cranial anatomy, the rarity of certain pathologies, ethical constraints on cadaveric dissection, and limited operative exposure. Advances in three-dimensional (3D) printing have enabled the development of patient-specific anatomical models derived from computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, offering realistic, reproducible platforms for surgical training and preoperative planning. This chapter reviews contemporary applications of 3D-printed, hybrid, and multimodal simulation models in neurosurgical education, with particular emphasis on complex craniofacial and encephalocele procedures. Through illustrative case reports-including frontoethmoidal and transsphenoidal meningoencephaloceles, metopic craniosynostosis, and late encephalocele correction-the chapter demonstrates how multimaterial 3D-printing, hybrid silicone-resin constructs, and integration with augmented and mixed reality can enhance spatial understanding, tactile feedback, and procedural rehearsal. Evidence from these cases indicates that patient-specific simulation can alter surgical strategy, reduce operative time and blood loss, and improve multidisciplinary communication. Educational benefits extend beyond surgeons to trainees and allied health professionals, supporting structured skill acquisition and competency-based assessment. The chapter also discusses the relevance of low-cost 3D-printing solutions for low- and middle-income countries, highlighting open-source software and affordable fabrication techniques as tools to reduce global disparities in neurosurgical care. Limitations related to cost, material fidelity, imaging quality, and technical expertise are addressed, alongside future directions for research and curriculum integration. Overall, 3D-printed and hybrid simulation models represent a transformative approach to neurosurgical training and patient-specific surgical planning, with significant implications for education, safety, and global health equity.