A taphonomic reassessment of Qafzeh 25 and its implications for violence, health and funerary practices.

The Qafzeh cave preserves one of the most significant Middle Paleolithic human assemblages, offering key insights into health, possible violence, and funerary behavior among human Middle Paleolithic samples. In this study, we present new evidence of sharp-force trauma in the individual Qafzeh-25. The integrated macro-, microscopic, and micro-computed tomography analysis revealed a linear lesion affecting the left mandible and third premolar, consistent with an injury caused by a sharp object. Localized bone porosity and marginal thickening consistent with remodeling indicate that the lesion underwent a healing process, suggesting that the individual survived for a period of time after the injury. This case may represent one of the earliest documented examples of sharp-force trauma in the archaeological record and contributes to the limited evidence of possible interpersonal violence during the Middle Paleolithic. The taphonomic study conducted here confirms that Qafzeh-25 was deliberately buried, reinforcing previous interpretations of the site as a place of formal burials in the early Late Pleistocene. Additionally, we identified additional dental pathologies, including new carious lesion and enamel defects. These findings add to the previous recorded evidence of caries and dental anomalies in the Qafzeh sample, highlighting both biological vulnerability and possible hereditary or environmental factors. Together, the trauma, oral pathologies, and funerary context illuminate the complexity of health, social support, and culture of death in the Pleistocene human fossil record.