ArticleBMC veterinary research2026
Epidemiology and genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii in rescued raptors from wildlife rehabilitation centres in Brazil.
Article in BMC veterinary research, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
backgroundRaptors, including the orders Accipitriformes (hawks and kites), Falconiformes (falcons and caracaras), Cathartiformes (New World vultures), and Strigiformes (owls), are found in small forest fragments, parks, vacant lots, outskirts, and open areas within the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. However, few studies have examined the infectious agents that infect them, particularly protozoa. This research reports on the seroprevalence, isolation, and genetic diversity of the zoonotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii in rescued raptors from two wildlife rehabilitation centres. These birds were fed live mice from a certified institution, as well as quails and insects from commercial establishments.
methodsA total of 151 raptor specimens was sampled, comprising five Cathartiformes, 30 Accipitriformes, 31 Falconiformes, and 85 Strigiformes, representing 19 species. Anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies were identified via the Modified Agglutination Test (MAT; cut-off ≥ 20). Bioassays in mice were performed to isolate T. gondii, and the genetic diversity of the isolates was examined via PCR-RFLP and microsatellite genotyping.
resultsOf the 151 birds, serum samples were collected from 150 specimens. MAT results showed that 62 birds (41.3%) across 14 species were seropositive, including 19 of 29 (65.5%) Accipitriformes, 19 of 31 (61.3%) Falconiformes, and 24 of 85 (28.2%) Strigiformes. Among the 128 bioassays conducted in mice, 27 (21.1%) T. gondii isolates were obtained from birds of nine species, including isolates from Rupornis magnirostris (7), Geranoaetus albicaudatus (2), and Elanus leucurus (1); Caracara plancus (9), Falco sparverius (3), and Falco femoralis (1); Asio clamator (2), Megascops choliba (1), and Asio stygius (1). PCR-RFLP genotyping identified 16 genotypes, and a mixed genotype, including genotypes #11 (Type BrII - 7 isolates), #19 (2), #21 (1), #22 (1), #33 (2), #51 (1), #69 (1), #111 (1), #162 (1), #175 (3) and five new genotypes designated #350, #351, #352, #353, and #354. Microsatellite analysis revealed 26 genotypes and a mixed genotype. Some rare alleles detected included 287 for TUB2, 246 for W35, 203 for TgM-A, 364 and 366 for B17, and 273 for MIV.1.
conclusionsToxoplasma gondii is highly prevalent and genetically diverse among the wild raptors in the studied population. The same strains may circulate among wild raptors, domestic animals and humans.
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