ArticleFrontiers in immunology2026
Application of immune checkpoint inhibitors in hepatocellular carcinoma: a landscape analysis of clinical trial databases.
Article in Frontiers in immunology, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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The abstract states no effect estimate the extractor could read, or names no intervention and outcome on the map, so this paper lights no cell and moves no belief. It is still indexed, cited and linked below.
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Trials whose registry record cites this paper, or whose number appears in the abstract. A trial that started after this paper was published is citing it as background, not reporting it.
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Authors and funding
8 authors.
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Abstract
Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a leading global malignant tumor with poor prognosis. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have become a breakthrough treatment for HCC, but a systematic landscape analysis of global ICI clinical trials is lacking. Methods: Four international clinical trial databases were systematically searched up to February 14, 2026. After screening, 132 eligible trials were included and analyzed for geographic distribution, molecular targets, clinical phases, trial status and result publication rate using R 4.5.1. Results: Trials displayed a China-US dual-core pattern (95 vs. 16). PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors were the predominant targets, while CTLA-4 inhibitor trials were scarce. Phase II was the most frequent clinical phase (59 trials). Over 80% were interventional studies; most were recruiting or of unknown status, with only 6 terminated or withdrawn. The overall result publication rate was extremely low, with 71 PD1-targeting trials and 71.4% CTLA-4 trials were unpublished. Conclusion: Global HCC ICIs trials are highly concentrated geographically and by target, with stable research progress. However, major challenges include low result translation efficiency, unbalanced target development, insufficient early/late-phase trials and uneven global collaboration. Targeted optimization is needed to promote clinical translation.
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