Temporal and Autoregressive Features for Cattle Behavior Classification Using Low-Power LoRaWAN Accelerometer Data.

Accelerometer sensors and artificial intelligence (AI) are reshaping automated behavior monitoring in precision livestock management, yet their joint deployment on extensive rangelands is constrained by energy and bandwidth budgets. Low-Power Long-Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) collars address these constraints by compressing the raw tri-axial signal on the device into a single scalar per reporting interval, the Motion Index (MI). This onboard compression preserves enough signal to separate active behaviors but discards the per-axis and frequency content that fine-grained classification typically relies on. On a dataset of 9222 labeled observations from 24 cows across four breeds, MI distinguishes walking from grazing reliably but fails to separate ruminating from resting; both correspond to a stationary animal and yield near-zero, statistically indistinguishable distributions. Earlier MI-only models reached only about 65% four-class accuracy, and ruminating was commonly merged into resting. We show that much of this loss can be recovered by treating the MI stream as a time series. Session-aware lag features, rolling statistics, and an autoregressive previous-behavior feature lift four-class macro-F1 from 0.647 to 0.94, with per-class F1 of 0.95 for ruminating and 0.92 for resting (and at least 0.92 for every behavior). In autonomous deployment the previous behavior must be predicted rather than observed; for this setting we add a Viterbi sequence-decoding step that combines the classifier's per-step outputs with a learned behavior-transition model, recovering a substantial part of the ruminating signal from the activity stream alone while keeping walking and grazing reliable. The gain is consistent across seven classifiers and four genetically distinct breeds, indicating that it is driven by the features rather than by a specific model.