Dual-Signal Direct Time-of-Flight Method for Long-Range Groundwater Level Monitoring in Observation Wells.

Accurate and reliable groundwater-level monitoring in deep observation wells remains difficult for conventional non-contact ultrasonic systems because narrow tubular geometries intensify multipath reflections, signal attenuation, and echo ambiguity. This study proposes a dual-signal direct time-of-flight (ToF) method that combines radiofrequency (RF) synchronization with one-way airborne ultrasonic propagation to a floating receiver located at the groundwater surface. In the proposed architecture, the RF signal provides a near-instantaneous time reference, whereas the ultrasonic signal defines the propagation delay, thereby eliminating dependence on echo-based ranging. The system integrates a wellhead surface unit for synchronized transmission and control, a floating unit for ToF acquisition and embedded processing, and an optional reference channel for in situ estimation of the effective sound speed. A duty-cycled power architecture is used to support low-power long-term deployment, while a multi-shot acquisition strategy with a median-like estimator improves robustness against startup transients, timing jitters, and false detections. Field validation was conducted over a 12-month period under actual groundwater-monitoring conditions, during which the groundwater depth varied between 14 m and 30 m below the wellhead datum. Within this field-validation interval, the proposed system achieved a mean absolute error of 0.048 m, a maximum absolute error of 0.050 m, and an overall valid detection rate of 99.4% over 358 valid cycles out of 360 scheduled cycles. In addition, a separate range-dependent confined-tubular propagation test was conducted to evaluate the extended detection capability of the RF-synchronized one-way ultrasonic ToF architecture. This test demonstrated stable acoustic-link ToF detection up to 300 m inside the tested 170 mm confined plastic pipeline. Therefore, the 300 m result should be interpreted as a range-dependent valid-detection result rather than as a 12-month groundwater-depth validation over the full 300 m interval. These results demonstrate that the proposed direct-ToF method provides an RF-synchronized one-way ultrasonic ToF framework with a floating receiver for groundwater-level monitoring in deep observation wells, while remaining compatible with low-power and IoT-based environmental monitoring systems.