ArticleNPJ science of food2026
Urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolites, biological aging, and cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome: deciphering association, mediation, and mechanism via epidemiology and bioinformatics.
Article in NPJ science of food, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Associations of caffeine (the most routinely consumed bioactive compound worldwide) and caffeine metabolites (CAF/CAFMs) with cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic (CKM) syndrome (a newly-introduced high-burden clinical condition) and role of biological aging and underlying mechanisms are uncharted territories warranting pressing decryption. Among 3020 adults, 15 urinary CAF/CAFMs were determined to investigate their single-analyte (by weighted logistic regression) and mixture (by Bayesian kernel machine regression [BKMR] and weighted quantile sum [WQS]) relationships between advanced CKM syndrome. Role of emerging biological aging metric-Gompertz-Law-Based Biological Age Difference (GOLD BioAgeDiff)-was explored by mediation analysis. Underlying mechanisms were explored by network pharmacology. Specific CAF/CAFMs (1-methylxanthine, theophylline, paraxanthine, and theobromine) were negatively linked to advanced CKM syndrome (P and false discovery rate < 0.05). WQS and BKMR uncovered negative CAF/CAFMs mixture-advanced CKM syndrome association (odds ratio = 0.782; 95% confidential interval: 0.670, 0.912). Exploratorily, GOLD BioAgeDiff mediated 13.85-20.06% of the CAF/CAFMs-advanced CKM syndrome associations. Metabolic, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphoinositide 3-kinase-protein kinase B (PI3K-Akt), and apoptosis signaling pathways were exploratorily enriched in the CAF/CAFMs-CKM syndrome relationships. Overall, several CAF/CAFMs and, especially, their mixture showed protective associations with CKM syndrome, which was exploratorily mediated by delayed biological aging, while metabolic, MAPK, PI3K-Akt, and apoptosis signaling pathways might be involved in the underlying mechanisms.
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