Artificial Intelligence in East African Agriculture: A Systematic Review of Applications, Adoption, and Implications for Smallholder Farmers.

Artificial intelligence (AI) has evolved over several decades and is increasingly recognized as a transformative tool for improving agricultural productivity, resilience, and access to information, particularly in smallholder farming systems such as those in East Africa. This systematic literature review synthesizes existing evidence on the applications, adoption dynamics, implications, and policy considerations of AI in East African agriculture over the period 1985-2025. The study follows PRISMA guidelines and draws on peer-reviewed articles, conference papers, and institutional reports retrieved from major academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. A thematic analysis approach was used to organize and interpret the findings. The review shows that early developments in AI-related agricultural technologies were limited and largely experimental, but advancements in digital technologies, mobile connectivity, remote sensing, and data analytics have significantly expanded AI applications in recent years. Key application areas identified include AI-powered advisory services, precision agriculture, crop and pest monitoring, financial and market intelligence, and climate-smart agriculture. These technologies support farmers by enabling real-time, data-driven decision-making, improving resource use efficiency, and enhancing access to agricultural information and markets. Despite these advancements, the adoption of AI among smallholder farmers in East Africa remains relatively low and uneven. The review identifies several factors influencing adoption, including education, digital literacy, access to extension services, infrastructure availability, income levels, and institutional support. Major barriers include limited rural infrastructure, high costs, inadequate digital skills, weak integration with extension systems, and data-related constraints. Although AI offers promising benefits in terms of productivity, information access, and inclusivity, concerns remain regarding digital inequality, affordability, data privacy, and potential exclusion of marginalized groups. From a policy perspective, the study underscores the importance of strengthening digital infrastructure, investing in capacity building, enhancing extension services, and promoting inclusive public-private partnerships to support the effective deployment of AI technologies. Overall, the review concludes that although AI has significant potential to transform East African agriculture, its impact depends on addressing systemic constraints and ensuring that technologies are accessible, affordable, and aligned with the needs of smallholder farmers. The study also identifies research gaps and suggests future directions for advancing AI integration in the region.