ArticleBehavior research methods2026
Is "sky" bluer than "grass" is green? Word-color associations dataset for cognitive science.
Article in Behavior research methods, 2026. The graph could read no effect estimate from its abstract, so it casts no vote on the map. Not yet cited in PubMed.
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Abstract
Color plays a fundamental role in cognition, influencing perception, memory, and language processing. Although many studies have used word-color associations to examine cognitive processes, the selection of color-associated stimuli has often been arbitrary and rarely validated through independent behavioral measures. The current study developed and validated a dataset of color-associated object words for cognitive research. In Experiment 1, 298 participants provided subjective assessments for 143 words selected from 124 previous studies. For each word, participants indicated the most strongly associated color, rated the strength of the association, and selected the RGB value. The results revealed substantial variability across words in agreement and association strength. Based on these ratings, we constructed a dataset of 79 strongly color-associated words across 11 color categories. In Experiment 2, we validated the dataset in a UK sample (N = 568) using a manual semantic Stroop task, in which words were presented in congruent or incongruent colors. Dataset words produced a reliable semantic Stroop effect, with faster responses to congruent than incongruent color-associated word pairings, and this effect was larger for dataset than non-dataset words. In Experiment 3, we replicated this validation pattern in an independent US sample (N = 337), providing further evidence for the robustness and usefulness of the dataset for English-language cognitive research. Across the validation experiments, subjective association strength was related to the objective semantic Stroop effect. Together, the findings demonstrate that the current dataset provides an empirically validated set of color-associated words that can support research on perception, memory, semantic processing, and cognitive control.
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