Soil Lead Risks Associated With Urbanization Histories in Springfield MA and Hartford CT, USA.

Due to legacy leaded products, soil Pb is generally higher in older urban centers triggering substantial implications for environmental equity. By integrating a gridded soil Pb analysis of about 150 samples each in two historically industrial cities (Hartford, CT and Springfield, MA) with block-level census data, we tested the hypotheses that (a) high soil Pb areas correlate spatially with older housing, (b) historical processes of discrimination have caused long-lasting environmental injustices with respect to Pb exposure, and (c) multiple social, demographic and geographic factors intersect in determining areas in need of targeted remediation efforts. Our data and geospatial analysis showed higher Pb concentrations in Hartford than Springfield and confirmed the prevalence of elevated (>200 ppm) Pb in soils closer to older homes in both cities. Using a decision tree statistical partition, we show that exposure to elevated soil Pb was most prevalent in communities with children population higher than the city median, who live in multi-family housing. In Springfield, ethnicity was a significant factor in exposure as census blocks populated by non-Hispanic Whites were least likely to contain lead in soils above 200 ppm. Our analysis highlights that historical discriminatory practices, including redlining, have anchored environmental injustices in the studied communities, creating an invisible legacy challenge recorded in the land and carried across decades. The use of decision trees in the context of soil lead contamination provides a new method to help identify vulnerabilities of marginalized populations, providing quantitative tools to advocate for targeted mitigation and remediation.