Mycotoxin detection in food and feed: bridging conventional analytical methods with emerging sensor-based technologies.

Mycotoxins, a harmful secondary metabolite released by filamentous fungi, are a major and frequent contaminant of agricultural products. They pose a major threat to food and feed security, public health, and global trade. Major mycotoxins of interest include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, deoxynivalenol, and citrinin, are associated with severe toxicological effects such as hepatocarcinogenicity, nephrotoxicity, immunosuppression, and endocrine disruption. A wide range of analytical methods has been developed for their detection, ranging from conventional chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques to biosensors Although conventional techniques offer high accuracy and sensitivity, their dependence on costly instrumentation, lengthy analysis procedures, and specialized laboratory infrastructure limits their suitability for routine or field-level monitoring. To address these challenges, recent research has increasingly focused on sensor-based technologies, electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, electronic-nose, and solid-state gas sensors, which offer rapid, portable, and cost-effective alternatives. This review not only synthesizes these advances but also introduces a distinctive emphasis on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as emerging, non-invasive biomarkers for early fungal contamination detection, a perspective rarely highlighted in existing literature. Together, these developments offer promising pathways toward robust, real-time surveillance tools that strengthen food and feed safety. This review also discussed their applications, limitations, and future perspectives are also discussed.