Parental violent discipline and adolescent health: is there a different effect when one or both parents are involved?

Children's exposure to parental violence increases the risk of adverse health outcomes. We aimed to examine how combinations of maternal and paternal violent disciplinary practices at ages 7 and 13 years shape adolescents' health-related behaviors and depressive symptoms. This cohort study included 4,610 participants from the Portuguese Generation XXI birth cohort, enrolled at birth (2005-2006) and followed up at ages 7 and 13 years. Maternal and paternal disciplinary tactics were reported using the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale, assessing psychological aggression, corporal punishment, and severe physical assault. Outcomes at age 13 years included health-related behaviors (fighting and substance use) and depressive symptoms. Combined effects of maternal and paternal discipline were assessed using multiplicative and additive interaction models. Mothers used corporal punishment and severe physical assault more frequently with boys, whereas fathers used all types of violent discipline more often with boys than with girls. The use of either corporal punishment or psychological aggression by both mothers and fathers was associated with a multiplicative effect on adolescent substance use. Psychological aggression by both parents also showed an additive effect on risky health-related behaviors and depressive symptoms. The use of severe physical violence by both parents was associated with an additive interaction on health-related bahaviors and depressive symptoms. The combined use of violent discipline by fathers and mothers was associated with a multiplicative increase in the likelihood of adolescent negative health-related behaviors and depressive symptoms, suggesting a synergistic effect with significant implications for early interventions and prevention strategies.