Multivariate Analysis and Health Risk Assessment of Hazardous Trace Elements in Honey from Ordu, Türkiye.

Honey is increasingly recognized as both a high-value food product and a sensitive bioindicator of environmental contamination. Here, we provide an integrated assessment of physicochemical properties, trace element composition, and human health risks in honey collected from eight districts of Ordu Province, Türkiye. Significant regional variability (p < 0.05) was observed, driven by geographical origin, environmental conditions, and botanical diversity. Multivariate analysis explained 83.6% of total variance and clearly separated samples according to geogenic (Fe-Ni-Cu) and anthropogenic (Cd-Pb-Zn) signatures. Despite detectable spatial variation in trace element concentrations, toxic elements such as As, Cd, and Pb remained at low levels, and carcinogenic risk (CR) values were within acceptable limits. However, chromium emerged as the dominant contributor to non-carcinogenic risk indices (THQ and HI), highlighting its critical role in exposure assessment. Importantly, this contribution is likely conservative, as risk calculations were based on total chromium without speciation, potentially overestimating the actual toxicological impact relative to hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)]. These findings demonstrate that honey from the studied region is safe for consumption while revealing that chromium-driven risk signals may mask the true exposure profile if speciation is not considered. More broadly, this study establishes a robust framework integrating chemometric analysis and risk assessment, positioning honey as a powerful tool for environmental monitoring and food safety evaluation.